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- Disaccharide molecules have two monosaccharide units, trisaccharide molecules have three units, and so on. Chains with many monosaccharide units joined together are called polysaccharides. All these so-called higher saccharides can be hydrolyzed...
- Key Takeaways Carbohydrates are an important group of biological molecules that includes sugars and starches. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from sunlight to synthesize carbohydrates. A monosaccharide is the simplest...
Big Ideas Math Answers Grade 6 Chapter 5 Algebraic Expressions And Properties
Monosaccharides of specific sizes may be indicated by names composed of a stem denoting the number of carbon atoms and the suffix -ose. For example, the terms triose, tetrose, pentose, and hexose signify monosaccharides with, respectively, three, four, five, and six carbon atoms. Monosaccharides are also classified as aldoses or ketoses. Those monosaccharides that contain an aldehyde functional group are called aldoses; those containing a ketone functional group on the second carbon atom are ketoses. Combining these classification systems gives general names that indicate both the type of carbonyl group and the number of carbon atoms in a molecule. Thus, monosaccharides are described as aldotetroses, aldopentoses, ketopentoses, ketoheptoses, and so forth.- Glucose and fructose are specific examples of an aldohexose and a ketohexose, respectively. Example 2 Draw an example of each type of compound. Several structures are possible, but one example is shown. The structure must have four carbon atoms with the first carbon atom part of the aldehyde functional group. The other three carbon atoms each have an OH group attached. Skill-Building Exercise Draw an example of each type of compound. The possible trioses are shown in part a of Figure 6.
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Notice that two structures are shown for glyceraldehyde. These structures are stereoisomers, isomers having the same structural formula but differing in the arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms in three-dimensional space. If you make models of the two stereoisomers of glyceraldehyde, you will find that you cannot place one model on top of the other and have each functional group point in the same direction. However, if you place one of the models in front of a mirror, the image in the mirror will be identical to the second stereoisomer in part b of Figure 6. These are another type of stereoisomers.- Figure 6. Note that the reflection has the same structure as L-glyceraldehyde. A key characteristic of enantiomers is that they have a carbon atom to which four different groups are attached. Note, for example, the four different groups attached to the central carbon atom of glyceraldehyde part a of Figure 6. A carbon atom that has four different groups attached is a chiral carbon. If a molecule contains one or more chiral carbons, it is likely to exist as two or more stereoisomers. Dihydroxyacetone does not contain a chiral carbon and thus does not exist as a pair of stereoisomers. Glyceraldehyde, however, has a chiral carbon and exists as a pair of enantiomers. Except for the direction in which each enantiomer rotates plane-polarized light, these two molecules have identical physical properties.
- Emil Fischer, a German chemist, developed the convention commonly used for writing two-dimensional representations of the monosaccharides, such as those in part a of Figure 6. In these structural formulas, the aldehyde group is written at the top, and the hydrogen atoms and OH groups that are attached to each chiral carbon are written to the right or left. If the monosaccharide is a ketose, the ketone functional group is the second carbon atom. Vertical lines represent bonds pointing away from you, while horizontal lines represent bonds coming toward you. The formulas of chiral molecules represented in this manner are referred to as Fischer projections. The two enantiomers of glyceraldehyde are especially important because monosaccharides with more than three carbon atoms can be considered as being derived from them.
- Thus, D- and L-glyceraldehyde provide reference points for designating and drawing all other monosaccharides. Sugars whose Fischer projections terminate in the same configuration as D-glyceraldehyde are designated as D sugars; those derived from L-glyceraldehyde are designated as L sugars. Note By convention, the penultimate next-to-last carbon atom has been chosen as the carbon atom that determines if a sugar is D or L. It is the chiral carbon farthest from the aldehyde or ketone functional group. Looking Closer: Polarized Light A beam of ordinary light can be pictured as a bundle of waves; some move up and down, some sideways, and others at all other conceivable angles. When a beam of light has been polarized, however, the waves in the bundle all vibrate in a single plane.
- Light altered in this way is called plane-polarized light. Much of what chemists know about stereoisomers comes from studying the effects they have on plane-polarized light. In this illustration, the light on the left is not polarized, while that on the right is polarized. Sunlight, in general, is not polarized; light from an ordinary light bulb or an ordinary flashlight is not polarized. One way to polarize ordinary light is to pass it through Polaroid sheets, special plastic sheets containing carefully oriented organic compounds that permit only light vibrating in a single plane to pass through.
- We can detect polarized light, however, by using a second sheet of polarizing material, as shown here. In the photo on the left, two Polaroid sheets are aligned in the same direction; plane-polarized light from the first Polaroid sheet can pass through the second sheet. Certain substances act on polarized light by rotating the plane of vibration. Such substances are said to be optically active. The extent of optical activity is measured by a polarimeter, an instrument that contains two polarizing lenses separated by a sample tube, as shown in the accompanying figure. When an optically active substance is placed in the sample tube, that substance rotates the plane of polarization of the light passing through it, so that the polarized light emerging from the sample tube is vibrating in a different direction than when it entered the tube.
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To see the maximum amount of light when the sample is in place, the observer must rotate one lens to accommodate the change in the plane of polarization. These compounds are said to be dextrorotatory; substances that rotate light to the left counterclockwise are levorotatory. Concept Review Exercises What is a chiral carbon? Describe how enantiomers differ. Answers A chiral carbon is a carbon atom with four different groups attached to it. Enantiomers are mirror images of each other; they differ in the arrangements of atoms around a chiral carbon. Most monosaccharides contain at least one chiral carbon and can form stereoisomers.- Enantiomers are a specific type of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other. Exercises 1. Identify each sugar as an aldose or a ketose and then as a triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose.
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Who needs to fill it out? How to fill it out Step 1: Fill in your case information. Enter your name, the bankruptcy court you filed in, and your case number if you have one. Step 2: Fill in your marital and filing status. Filling out the average monthly income section should be straightforward. Simply add up your income from the previous six months for each source. Make sure you use the gross amount before taxes and deductions. Make sure to include income you expect to receive from spousal or child support, income from businesses you own, income from investments you own such as dividends , unemployment income, retirement income or any other income you may receive.- Make sure you include all of your income. In general, if you receive a deposit in your bank account, that deposit may be income you should consider listing. You may want to consult a bankruptcy professional for help. Step 4: Calculate your total annual income. Since there are 12 months in a year, multiply your monthly income by 12 to get your annual income. This comparison takes place in Part 2 of Form A Find your state in the first column. Then, move across that row to look at the column that pertains to your family size. It should be noted that every state has different median income calculations. Form A Chapter 7 Means Test Calculation Form A-2 focuses on calculating your disposable income based on your income and expenses. If your completed Form A-1 shows your income is higher than the median, you must file Form A If that amount is high enough, you may be presumed to have too much income to qualify for Chapter 7 bankruptcy.
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